How Long Has Animal Experimentation Been Going On

One of Pavlov'due south dogs with a saliva-take hold of container and tube surgically implanted in its muzzle, Pavlov Museum, 2005

The history of animal testing goes back to the writings of the Aboriginal Greeks in the fourth and 3rd centuries BCE, with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and Erasistratus (304–258 BCE) i of the get-go documented to perform experiments on nonhuman animals.^[1] Galen, a medico in 2nd-century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is known as the "Father of Vivisection."^[2] Avenzoar, an Arabic md in 12th-century Moorish Spain who also skilful dissection, introduced fauna testing as an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.^{[3] [4]} Although the exact purpose of the procedure was unclear, a Neolithic surgeon performed trepanation on a moo-cow in 3400-3000 BCE.^[five] This is the primeval known surgery to have been performed on an beast, and it is possible that the procedure was washed on a expressionless cow in order for the surgeon to do their skills.

History of animal testing [edit]

The mouse is a typical testing species.

In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis provided accurate descriptions of the circulation of blood in mammals. A complete description of this circulation was afterwards provided in the 17th century by William Harvey.

In his unfinished 1627 utopian novel, New Atlantis, scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon proposed a research center containing "parks and enclosures of all sorts of beasts and birds which we apply ... for dissections and trials; that thereby we may take light what may be wrought upon the body of man."

In the 1660s, the physicist Robert Boyle conducted many experiments with a pump to investigate the furnishings of rarefied air. He listed 2 experiments on living nonhuman animals: "Experiment 40", which tested the power of insects to fly under reduced air pressure, and the dramatic "Experiment 41," which demonstrated the reliance of living creatures on the air for their survival. Boyle conducted numerous trials during which he placed a large diversity of different nonhuman animals, including birds, mice, eels, snails and flies, in the vessel of the pump and studied their reactions equally the air was removed.^[6] Hither, he describes an injured lark:

…the Bird for a while appear'd lively enough; but upon a greater Exsuction of the Air, she began manifestly to droop and appear sick, and very presently after was taken with as violent and irregular Convulsions, as are wont to be observ'd in Poultry, when their heads are wrung off: For the Bird threw her self over and over two or three times, and dyed with her Breast upward, her Head downwards, and her Neck awry.^[7]

In the 18th century, Antoine Lavoisier decided to use a guinea pig in a calorimeter because he wanted to prove that respiration was a grade of combustion. He had an impression that combustion and respiration are chemically identical. Lavoisier demonstrated this with the help of Pierre-Simon Laplace. They both advisedly measured the amount of "carbon dioxide and heat given off by a guinea pig every bit (they) breathed".^[8] Then they contrasted this to "the corporeality of heat produced when they burned carbon to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as had been exhaled by the republic of guinea squealer".^[8] Their conclusion fabricated Lavoisier confident "that respiration is a grade of combustion".^[8] Also, the result showed that the heat mammals produce through respiration immune their bodies to exist above room temperature.

Stephen Hales measured blood pressure level in the horse. In the 1780s, Luigi Galvani demonstrated that electricity applied to a dead, dissected, frog'south leg muscle caused it to twitch, which led to an appreciation for the human relationship between electricity and animation. In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur convincingly demonstrated the germ theory of medicine by giving anthrax to sheep. In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to depict classical conditioning.

In 1921 Otto Loewi provided the start substantial evidence that neuronal communication with target cells occurred via chemical synapses. He extracted two hearts from frogs and left them beating in an ionic bath. He stimulated the attached Vagus nerve of the first heart and observed its beating slowed. When the 2d heart was placed in the ionic bath of the beginning, it besides slowed.^[ix]

In the 1920s, Edgar Adrian formulated the theory of neural communication that the frequency of action potentials, and not the size of the activeness potentials, was the basis for communicating the magnitude of the signal. His work was performed in an isolated frog nerve-muscle preparation. Adrian was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work.^[x]

In the 1960s David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel demonstrated the macro columnar organisation of visual areas in cats and monkeys, and provided physiological evidence for the critical period for the development of disparity sensitivity in vision (i.east.: the chief cue for depth perception), and were awarded a Nobel Prize for their work.

In 1996 Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell.^[11] The process by which Dolly the sheep was cloned utilized a process known as nuclear transfer practical past lead scientist Ian Wilmut. Although other scientists were not immediately able to replicate the experiment, Wilmut argued that the experiment was indeed repeatable, given a timeframe of over a year.^[12]

In 1997, innovations in frogs, Xenopus laevis, by developmental biologist Jonathan Slack of the University of Bath, created headless tadpoles, which could permit future applications in donor organ transplantation.^[13]

There has been growing concern most both the methodology and the care of animals in laboratories who are used in testing. In that location is increasing emphasis on more than humane and compassionate handling of other animals.^[14] Methodological concerns include factors that make animal written report results less reproducible than intended. For example, a 2014 study from McGill University in Montreal, Canada suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels.^{[15] [16] [17]}

In medicine [edit]

Early on depictions of vivisection using pigs

In the 1880s and 1890s, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to demonstrate amnesty confronting diphtheria in other animals in 1898 by injecting a mix of toxin and antitoxin. This piece of work constituted in part the rationale for awarding von Behring the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Roughly 15 years subsequently, Behring appear such a mix suitable for man amnesty which largely banished diphtheria from the scourges of humankind.^[18] The antitoxin is famously commemorated each year in the Iditarod race, which is modeled subsequently the Nome in the 1925 serum run to Nome. The success of the fauna studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin are attributed by some as a cause of the reject of the early 20th century antivivisectionist motion in the USA.^[19]

In 1921, Frederick Banting tied upwards the pancreatic ducts of dogs and discovered that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to go on dogs with diabetes live. He followed up these experiments with the chemical isolation of insulin in 1922 with John Macleod. These experiments used bovine sources instead of dogs to improve the supply. The showtime person treated was Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-one-time diabetic who only weighed 65 pounds and was about to slip into a coma and die. After the first dose, the formulation had to be re-worked, a process that took 12 days. The 2d dose was effective.^[20] These two won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 for their discovery of insulin and its treatment of diabetes mellitus. Thompson lived 13 more than years taking insulin. Before insulin's clinical use, a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus meant decease; Thompson had been diagnosed in 1919.^[21]

In 1943, Selman Waksman's laboratory discovered streptomycin using a serial of screens to discover antibacterial substances from the soil. Waksman coined the term antibiotic with regards to these substances. Waksman would win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1952 for his discoveries in antibiotics. Corwin Hinshaw and William Feldman took the streptomycin samples and cured tuberculosis in four guinea pigs with it. Hinshaw followed these studies with man trials that provided a dramatic advance in the ability to cease and reverse the progression of tuberculosis.^{[22] [23]} Mortality from tuberculosis in the UK has diminished from the early on 20th century due to better hygiene and improved living standards, but from the moment antibiotics were introduced, the fall became steep so that by the 1980s mortality in adult countries was finer zero.^[24]

In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey cross-contamination studies to isolate the iii forms of the polio virus that affected hundreds of thousands yearly.^[25] Salk's squad created a vaccine against the strains of polio in cell cultures of rhesus monkey kidney cells. The vaccine was made publicly bachelor in 1955 and reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the Usa over the following 5 years.^[26] Albert Sabin made a superior "live" vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys. The vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963 and is nevertheless in utilize today. Information technology had virtually eradicated polio in the The states by 1965.^[27] Information technology has been estimated that 100,000 rhesus monkeys were killed in the class of developing the polio vaccines, and 65 doses of vaccine were produced from each monkey. Writing in the Winston-Salem Journal in 1992, Sabin said, "Without the use of nonhuman animals and human (animals), it would have been impossible to learn the of import knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not merely among humans but (other) animals likewise."^[28]

Too in the 1940s, John Cade tested lithium salts in republic of guinea pigs in a search for pharmaceuticals with anticonvulsant backdrop. The nonhuman animals seemed calmer in their mood. He then tested lithium on himself, before using information technology to treat recurrent mania.^[29] The introduction of lithium revolutionized the handling of manic-depressives by the 1970s. Prior to Cade's animal testing, manic-depressives were treated with a lobotomy or electro-convulsive therapy.

In the 1950s the first safer, volatile anaesthetic halothane was developed through studies on rodents, rabbits, dogs, cats and monkeys.^[30] This paved the manner for a whole new generation of modern general anaesthetics – besides adult past creature studies – without which modernistic, complex surgical operations would exist almost incommunicable.^[31]

In 1960, Albert Starr pioneered centre valve replacement surgery in humans later a series of surgical advances in dogs.^[32] He received the Lasker Medical Award in 2007 for his efforts, forth with Alain Carpentier. In 1968 Carpentier made eye valve replacements from the heart valves of pigs, which are pre-treated with glutaraldehyd to blunt immune response. Over 300,000 people receive eye valve replacements derived from Starr and Carpentier'due south designs annually. Carpentier said of Starr's initial advances "Before his prosthetic, patients with valvular disease would dice."^[33]

In the 1970s, leprosy multi-drug antibiotic treatments were refined using leprosy bacteria grown in armadillos and were then tested in human being clinical trials. Today, the ix-banded armadillo is still used to civilisation the bacteria that causes leprosy, for studies of the proteomics and genomics (the genome was completed in 1998) of the bacteria, for improving therapy and developing vaccines. Leprosy is notwithstanding prevalent in Brazil, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Bharat, and Nepal, with over 400,000 cases at the beginning of 2004.^[34] The bacteria has not yet been cultured in vitro with success necessary to develop drug treatments or vaccines, and mice and armadillos have been the sources of the bacteria for research.^[35]

The not-human being primate models of AIDS, using HIV-2, SHIV, and SIV in macaques, accept been used equally a complement to ongoing enquiry efforts against the virus. The drug tenofovir has had its efficacy and toxicology evaluated in macaques and found long-term/high-dose treatments had adverse effects not found using short-term/loftier-dose treatment followed by long-term/low-dose handling. This finding in macaques was translated into human being dosing regimens. Prophylactic treatment with anti-virals has been evaluated in macaques considering an introduction of the virus tin can simply exist controlled in an animal model. The finding that prophylaxis can be effective at blocking infection has altered the treatment for occupational exposures, such equally needle exposures. Such exposures are at present followed rapidly with anti-HIV drugs, and this practice has resulted in measurable transient virus infection similar to the NHP model. Similarly, the mother-to-fetus transmission, and its fetal prophylaxis with antivirals such as tenofovir and AZT, has been evaluated in controlled testing in macaques non possible in humans, and this knowledge has guided antiviral treatment in pregnant mothers with HIV. "The comparison and correlation of results obtained in monkey and human studies are leading to a growing validation and recognition of the relevance of the brute model. Although each animal model has its limitations, advisedly designed drug studies in nonhuman primates can continue to advance our scientific knowledge and guide future clinical trials."^{[36] [37] [38]}

Throughout the 20th century, research that used alive nonhuman animals has led to many other medical advances and treatments for homo diseases, such as: organ transplant techniques and anti-transplant rejection medications,^{[39] [40] [41] [42]} the heart-lung machine,^[43] antibiotics like penicillin,^[44] and whooping coughing vaccine.^[45]

Shortly, animate being experimentation continues to be used in inquiry that aims to solve medical problems including Alzheimer's affliction,^[46] multiple sclerosis^[47] spinal cord injury,^[48] and many more conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model organisation available.

Veterinary advances [edit]

A veterinary surgeon at work with a cat

Beast testing for veterinary studies accounts for around five percent of research using other animals. Treatments to each of the following animal diseases have been derived from animal studies: rabies,^[49] anthrax,^[49] glanders,^[49] Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV),^[50] tuberculosis,^[49] Texas cattle fever,^[49] Classical swine fever (squealer cholera),^[49] Heartworm and other parasitic infections.^[51]

Testing other animals for rabies do require the animal to exist dead, and it takes two hours to carry the test.^[52]

Basic and applied inquiry in veterinary medicine continues in varied topics, such as searching for improved treatments and vaccines for feline leukemia virus and improving veterinarian oncology.

Early on debate [edit]

The ethical implications of using animals for testing has been a heated debate in regards to the humane treatment that is used.

In 1655, physiologist Edmund O'Meara was recorded equally saying that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural country."^{[53] [54]} O'Meara thus expressed one of the chief scientific objections to vivisection: that the pain that the private endured would interfere with the accuracy of the results.

In 1822, the get-go animal protection law was enacted in the British parliament, followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), the first law specifically aimed at regulating animal testing. The legislation was promoted by Charles Darwin, who wrote to Ray Lankester in March 1871:

You lot ask near my opinion on vivisection. I quite hold that it is justifiable for real investigations on physiology; merely not for mere damnable and detestable curiosity. It is a subject which makes me sick with horror, and so I volition not say another discussion about it, else I shall not sleep to-night."^{[55] [56]}

Opposition to the use of nonhuman animals in medical research arose in the United States during the 1860s, when Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), with America's first specifically anti-vivisection organization being the American AntiVivisection Order (AAVS), founded in 1883.

In the Uk, an article in the Medical Times and Gazette on April 28, 1877, indicates that anti-vivisectionist campaigners, mainly clergymen, had prepared a number of posters entitled, "This is vivisection," "This is a living domestic dog," and "This is a living rabbit," depicting nonhuman animals in a poses that they said copied the piece of work of Elias von Cyon in Leningrad, though the article says the images differ from the originals. It states that no more than 10 or a dozen men were actively involved in animal testing on living nonhuman animals in the Uk at that time.^[57]

Antivivisectionists of the era believed the spread of mercy was the groovy cause of civilization, and vivisection was brutal. However, in the U.South., the antivivisectionists' efforts were defeated in every legislature because of the widespread support of an informed public for the careful and judicious utilise of other animals. The early antivivisectionist movement in the U.Due south. dwindled greatly in the 1920s. Overall, this move had no US legislative success. The passing of the Laboratory Brute Welfare Deed, in 1999 was more focused on protecting the welfare of other animals who are used in all fields, including inquiry, food production, consumer product evolution, etc.^{[58] [59]}

On the other side of the contend, those in favor of nonhuman-animal testing held that experiments on other animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge and to ensure the rubber of products intended for human and animal apply. In 1831, the founders of the Dublin Zoo—the quaternary oldest zoo in Europe, afterwards Vienna, Paris, and London—were members of the medical profession, interested in studying the individuals both while they were alive and when they were dead.^[60] Claude Bernard, known as the "prince of vivisectors"^[61] and the father of physiology—whose wife, Marie Françoise Martin, founded the first anti-vivisection society in France in 1883^[62]—famously wrote in 1865 that "the scientific discipline of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached but by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen."^[63] Arguing that "experiments on (nonhuman) animals...are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man...the effects of these substances are the same on man as on (other) animals, save for differences in caste,"^[64] Bernard established animal experimentation as part of the standard scientific method.^[65] In 1896, the physiologist and doc Dr. Walter B. Cannon said "The antivivisectionists are the 2nd of the 2 types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, 'Common sense without conscience may lead to crime, only conscience without common sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden of crime.'"^[58] These divisions between pro- and anti- animal testing groups first came to public attention during the brown canis familiaris thing in the early 20th century, when hundreds of medical students clashed with anti-vivisectionists and police force over a memorial to a vivisected dog.^[66]

See also [edit]

• History of model organisms
• Brute testing
• Alarik Frithiof Holmgren

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Cohen and Loew 1984.
2. ^ "History of nonhuman creature inquiry" Archived 2006-10-xiii at the Wayback Machine, Laboratory Primate Advocacy Group.
3. ^ Abdel-Halim, Rabie E. (September 2005). "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: a study and translations from his book Al-Taisir". Saudi Med J. 26 (9): 1333–nine. PMID 16155644.
4. ^ Abdel-Halim, Rabie East. (2006). "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology". Saudi Medical Journal. 27 (11): 161–1641. PMID 17106533.
5. ^ Ramirez Rozzi, Fernando; Froment, Alain (2018-04-19). "Primeval Beast Cranial Surgery: from Cow to Human in the Neolithic". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 5536. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.5536R. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23914-1. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC5908843. PMID 29674628.
6. ^ Due west, J.B. (2005). "Robert Boyle's landmark book of 1660 with the outset experiments on rarified air". Periodical of Applied Physiology. 98 (i): 31–39. doi:x.1152/japplphysiol.00759.2004. PMID 15591301.
7. ^ Boyle, Robert (2003) [1744]. Works of the Honorable Robert Boyle. Kessinger Publishing. p. 740. ISBN978-0-7661-6865-7.
8. ^ ^{a b c} "Antoine Lavoisier – Biography, Facts and Pictures". www.famousscientists.org . Retrieved 2016-08-07 .
9. ^ [1] ^{[ expressionless link ]} O. Loewi (1921) "Uber humorale Ubertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung. I." Pflügers Archiv, 189, pp. 239-242
10. ^ [2] Adrian Nobel Prize
11. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-06-07. Retrieved 2012-11-21 . {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as championship (link), AnimalResearch.Info Dolly the Sheep
12. ^ "Dolly the Sheep Was a Clone, Edinburgh Scientist Maintains". BMJ: British Medical Journal. 316 (7131): 573. 1998. JSTOR 25178321.
13. ^ Morton, Oliver; Williams, Nigel (1997). "First Dolly, Now Headless Tadpoles". Science. 278 (5339): 798. doi:10.1126/science.278.5339.798. JSTOR 2894431. PMID 9381189. S2CID 23144947.
14. ^ Mcmillan, Franklin D. (2012). "What Lexicon Are Brute Researchers Using?". Journal of Animate being Ideals. ii (1): 1–5. doi:x.5406/janimalethics.2.ane.0001. JSTOR 10.5406/janimalethics.two.i.0001.
15. ^ "The earth's favourite lab animate being has been found wanting, but there are new twists in the mouse's tale". The Economist. 2016-12-24. Retrieved 2017-01-10 .
16. ^ Katsnelson, Alla (2014). "Male person researchers stress out rodents". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.15106. S2CID 87534627.
17. ^ "Male Aroma May Compromise Biomedical Enquiry". Science | AAAS. 2014-04-28. Retrieved 2017-01-10 .
18. ^ "Emil von Behring – Biographical".
19. ^ Walter B. Cannon Papers, American Philosophical Society Archived 2009-08-fourteen at the Wayback Machine
20. ^ Discovery of Insulin Archived 2009-09-30 at the Wayback Car
21. ^ "Leonard Thompson Bio Page". Archived from the original on 2009-02-10.
22. ^ [3] Hinshaw obituary
23. ^ [4] Streptomycin
24. ^ Is Science Necessary
    Author: Max Perutz
    Page: 37-41
    Published 1989
    Publisher E.P. Dutton/NAL Penguin Inc
    ISBN 0-525-24673-viii
25. ^ [5] Virus-typing of polio past Salk
26. ^ [six] Salk polio virus
27. ^ [seven] History of polio vaccine
28. ^ ""the work on [polio] prevention was long delayed by... misleading experimental models of the disease in monkeys" - ari.info".
29. ^ [8] John Cade and Lithium
30. ^ Raventos J (1956) Br J Pharmacol xi, 394
31. ^ Whalen FX, Bacon DR & Smith HM (2005) All-time Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol nineteen, 323
32. ^ "Portland surgeon receives top medical prize". The Oregonian. xv September 2007.
33. ^ "2007 Lasker Awards announced – The Scientist Magazine®".
34. ^ "Home – spectroscopyNOW.com".
35. ^ "Armadillos in Enquiry".
36. ^ AIDS Reviews 2005;7:67-83 Antiretroviral Drug Studies in Nonhuman Primates: a Valid Brute Model for Innovative Drug Efficacy and Pathogenesis Experiments Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine
37. ^ "PMPA: Experimental Drug That Completely Protects Monkeys Exposed To SIV".
38. ^ "Medical Roundup".
39. ^ Carrel A (1912) Surg. Gynec. Obst. 14: p. 246
40. ^ Williamson C (1926) J. Urol. 16: p. 231
41. ^ Woodruff H & Burg R (1986) in Discoveries in Pharmacology vol 3, ed Parnham & Bruinvels, Elsevier, Amsterdam
42. ^ Moore F (1964) Requite and Have: the Development of Tissue Transplantation. Saunders, New York
43. ^ Gibbon JH (1937) Curvation. Surg. 34, 1105
44. ^ Fleming A (1929) Br J Exp Pathol 10, 226
45. ^ Medical Research Council (1956) Br. Med. J. two: p. 454
46. ^ Geula, C; Wu C-Thou, Saroff D; Lorenzo, A; Yuan, M; Yankner, BA; Yankner, Bruce A. (1998). "Aging renders the brain vulnerable to amyloid β protein neurotoxicity". Nature Medicine. 4 (7): 827–31. doi:10.1038/nm0798-827. PMID 9662375. S2CID 45108486.
47. ^ Jameson, BA; McDonnell, JM; Marini, JC; Korngold, R (1994). "A rationally designed CD4 analogue inhibits experimental allergic encephalomyelitis". Nature. 368 (6473): 744–half-dozen. Bibcode:1994Natur.368..744J. doi:10.1038/368744a0. PMID 8152486. S2CID 4370797.
48. ^ Lyuksyutova, AL; Lu C-C, Milanesio N; Milanesio, North; King, LA; Guo, Due north; Wang, Y; Nathans, J; Tessier-Lavigne, M; et al. (2003). "Anterior-posterior guidance of commissural axons by Wnt-Frizzled signaling". Science. 302 (5652): 1984–viii. Bibcode:2003Sci...302.1984L. doi:10.1126/science.1089610. PMID 14671310. S2CID 39309990.
49. ^ ^{a b c d e f} A reference handbook of the medical sciences. William Wood and Co., 1904, Edited past Albert H. Buck.
50. ^ Pu, R; Coleman, J; Coisman, J; Sato, E; Tanabe, T; Arai, Grand; Yamamoto, JK (2005). "Dual-subtype FIV vaccine (Fel-O-Vax FIV) protection against a heterologous subtype B FIV isolate". Periodical of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 7 (1): 65–70. doi:10.1016/j.jfms.2004.08.005. PMID 15686976. S2CID 26525327.
51. ^ Dryden, MW; Payne, PA (2005). "Preventing parasites in cats". Veterinary Therapeutics : Research in Practical Veterinary Medicine. 6 (iii): 260–7. PMID 16299672.
52. ^ "Diagnosis in Animals and Humans". Centers for Illness Command and Prevention. 2011-09-20. Retrieved 2016-07-31 .
53. ^ Ryder, Richard D. Creature Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism. Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 54.
54. ^ "Animal Experimentation: A Educatee Guide to Balancing the Issues" Archived 2009-12-18 at WebCite, Australian and New Zealand Quango for the Intendance of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART), retrieved December 12, 2007, cites original reference in Maehle, A-H. and Tr6hler, U. 1987. Animal experimentation from antiquity to the end of the eighteenth century: attitudes and arguments. In North. A. Rupke (ed.) Vivisection in Historical Perspective. Croom Helm, London, p. 22
55. ^ The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, Book Two, fulltextarchive.com.
56. ^ Bowlby, John. Charles Darwin: A New Life, W. W. Norton & Company, 1991. p. 420.
57. ^ The Latest Phase of the Vivisection Question, Medical Times and Gazette, April 28, 1877, pp. 446–447.
58. ^ ^{a b} The Physiologist at the-aps.org A Physiologist's Views on the Animal Rights/Liberation Movement Archived 2008-05-30 at the Wayback Automobile by Charles South. Nicoll The Physiologist 34(6): Dec 1991
59. ^ Buettinger, Craig Antivivisection and the charge of zoophil-psychosis in the early twentieth century. The Historian 1993
60. ^ Costello, John (9 June 2011). "The great zoo's who". Irish Independent.
61. ^ Croce, Pietro. Vivisection or Science? An Investigation into Testing Drugs and Safeguarding Health. Zed Books, 1999, p. xi.
62. ^ Rudacille, Deborah. The Scalpel and the Butterfly: The Disharmonize, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2000, p. nineteen.
63. ^ "In sickness and in health: vivisection's undoing", The Daily Telegraph, November 2003.
64. ^ Bernard, Claude An Introduction to the Written report of Experimental Medicine, 1865. Offset English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published past Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949, p125
65. ^ LaFollette, H., Shanks, N., Animal Experimentation: the Legacy of Claude Bernard, International Studies in the Philosophy of Science (1994) pp. 195-210.
66. ^ Stonemason, Peter. The Brown Domestic dog Affair. Ii Sevens Publishing, 1997.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_animal_testing

Posted by: hatchsubte1954.blogspot.com

Share this post